Welcome to your comprehensive guide to relative clauses in English! If you’re aiming for C1 level English, mastering complex grammar structures like relative clauses is crucial. They are the secret ingredient to making your spoken and written English sound more sophisticated, natural, and fluent. This lesson will break down everything you need to know about relative clauses, focusing on practical application and boosting your English speaking fluency.

What are Relative Clauses and Why are They Important?

Imagine you want to give extra information about a noun you’ve already mentioned. Instead of using short, choppy sentences, you can use a relative clause to seamlessly weave in additional details. Think of them as mini-sentences embedded within a larger sentence, adding depth and clarity to your communication.

Relative clauses are dependent clauses that modify nouns or pronouns. They begin with relative pronouns (like who, whom, whose, which, that) or relative adverbs (like where, when, why). Learning to use them effectively will significantly improve your complex sentence structure and make your English sound more advanced, which is essential for reaching that coveted C1 level.

Why are they so important for speaking? Because using relative clauses allows you to express more complex ideas smoothly and efficiently in conversation. Instead of saying “I met a woman. She is a doctor. She helped me a lot.”, you can say, “I met a woman who is a doctor and who helped me a lot.” See the difference? It’s more concise and sounds much more fluent.

Types of Relative Clauses: Defining and Non-Defining

There are two main types of relative clauses, and understanding the difference is key to using them correctly:

1. Defining Relative Clauses (Restrictive)

Defining relative clauses are essential for identifying the noun they modify. They give necessary information and are crucial to the meaning of the sentence. If you remove a defining relative clause, the sentence’s meaning will be unclear or incomplete.

• They are not set off with commas.
• They are introduced by relative pronouns like: who, that, which, whose, whom.

Examples:

• The book that I borrowed from the library is really interesting. (Which book? The one I borrowed from the library – essential information.)
• The woman who lives next door is a famous artist. (Which woman? The one who lives next door – defining the specific woman.)
• Do you know the reason why the meeting was cancelled? (Which reason? The reason for the cancellation.)

2. Non-Defining Relative Clauses (Non-Restrictive)

Non-defining relative clauses provide extra, non-essential information about a noun that is already clearly identified. This information is interesting but not crucial to understand who or what we are talking about. If you remove a non-defining relative clause, the sentence will still make sense.

• They are always set off with commas.
• They are introduced by relative pronouns like: who, which, whose, whom (NOT ‘that’).

Examples:

• My brother, who is a teacher, is coming to visit. (We already know who ‘my brother’ is. The clause just adds extra information about his profession.)
• Paris, which is the capital of France, is a beautiful city. (We know Paris. The clause gives extra information about it being the capital.)
• This phone, which I bought last week, is already broken. (We know ‘this phone’. The clause adds extra detail about when it was purchased.)

Notice the commas are essential in non-defining clauses! They signal that the information is additional, not defining.

Choosing the Right Relative Pronoun or Adverb

Selecting the correct relative pronoun or adverb is vital for accurate grammar. Here’s a quick guide:

Relative Pronouns:

• Who: Refers to people (subject of the relative clause). Example: The man who helped me was very kind.
• Whom: Refers to people (object of the relative clause). Often used in formal English. Example: The person whom you met is my boss. (More common in spoken English: The person who you met…)
• Whose: Shows possession for people or things. Example: The student whose essay won the prize is very talented. Example: The company, whose profits have increased, is expanding.
• Which: Refers to things or animals. Example: The car which is parked outside is mine.
• That: Refers to people, things, or animals. Used in defining relative clauses. Often interchangeable with ‘who’ or ‘which’ in defining clauses, but not used in non-defining clauses. Example: The book that I read was fascinating. (Defining) – The book which I read was fascinating. (Also correct – defining)

Relative Adverbs:

• Where: Refers to places. Example: The restaurant where we had dinner was excellent.
• When: Refers to times. Example: I remember the day when we first met.
• Why: Refers to reasons. Example: I don’t know the reason why she was angry.

Relative Clauses in Spoken English: Tips for Fluency

Now, let’s focus on using relative clauses to enhance your spoken English fluency. Here are some practical tips:

1. Start Simple, Then Add Complexity: Don’t try to use complex relative clauses in every sentence immediately. Begin by incorporating simple defining relative clauses in your everyday conversations. For example, instead of “I need a pen. It writes well.”, say “I need a pen that writes well.”
2. Practice Sentence Combining: Take short sentences and practice combining them using relative clauses. This will train your brain to think in more complex structures. For instance, “I saw a movie. It was amazing.” becomes “I saw a movie which was amazing.”
3. Listen and Notice: Pay attention to how native English speakers use relative clauses in podcasts, movies, and conversations. Notice the types of clauses they use and how they are integrated into speech. This will help you internalize the natural rhythm and flow.
4. Don’t Overthink ‘Whom’: While ‘whom’ is grammatically correct, in modern spoken English, ‘who’ is often used instead, even when ‘whom’ is technically required as the object pronoun. Focus on using ‘who’ correctly, and don’t get too hung up on ‘whom’ initially, especially for speaking.
5. Focus on Meaning First: When speaking, prioritize clear communication over perfect grammar. If you hesitate too much trying to construct a perfect relative clause, you might lose the flow of conversation. Aim for clarity and gradually refine your grammar as you practice.
6. Use ‘That’ More in Defining Clauses: In spoken English, ‘that’ is very common in defining relative clauses and often sounds more natural than ‘which’ or ‘who’ in certain contexts. Embrace ‘that’ for simplicity, especially when starting out.

Common Mistakes to Avoid with Relative Clauses

Even advanced learners sometimes make mistakes with relative clauses. Here are some common pitfalls to watch out for:

• Using ‘that’ in non-defining relative clauses: Remember, ‘that’ is not used in non-defining clauses. Always use ‘who’ or ‘which’ and commas for non-defining clauses. Incorrect: My sister, that lives in London, is a doctor. Correct: My sister, who lives in London, is a doctor.
• Forgetting commas with non-defining clauses: Commas are crucial for distinguishing non-defining clauses. Omitting them can change the meaning. Incorrect: My car which is red is very old. (Implies you have multiple cars and are specifying the red one). Correct: My car, which is red, is very old. (Implies you have one car, and it’s red).
• Incorrect choice of relative pronoun: Using ‘which’ for people or ‘who’ for things is a common error. Double-check your pronoun choice based on whether you are referring to people, things, places, or times.
• Overusing relative clauses: While they are great for fluency, don’t overuse them to the point of making your speech sound overly formal or unnatural. Balance complex sentences with simpler ones for a natural speaking style.

Let’s Practice!

Ready to put your knowledge to the test? Fill in the blanks with the correct relative pronoun or adverb to complete these sentences. Decide if the clause is defining or non-defining and use commas where necessary.

1. The movie ______ we watched last night was a comedy. (_______ clause)
2. My best friend, ______ is from Italy, is visiting me next month. (_______ clause)
3. That’s the restaurant ______ I told you about. (_______ clause)
4. The woman ______ car was stolen reported it to the police. (_______ clause)
5. I want to visit the city ______ my grandmother was born. (_______ clause)
6. The book, ______ cover is torn, is still readable. (_______ clause)
7. Do you know the reason ______ he was late? (_______ clause)
8. The students ______ are studying hard will succeed. (_______ clause)
9. My new phone, ______ is very expensive, has a great camera. (_______ clause)
10. The teacher ______ taught us English last year was excellent. (_______ clause)

Answers to Practice Exercises:

1. The movie that/which we watched last night was a comedy. (Defining clause)
2. My best friend, who is from Italy, is visiting me next month. (Non-defining clause)
3. That’s the restaurant where I told you about. (Defining clause)
4. The woman whose car was stolen reported it to the police. (Defining clause)
5. I want to visit the city where my grandmother was born. (Defining clause)
6. The book, whose cover is torn, is still readable. (Non-defining clause)
7. Do you know the reason why he was late? (Defining clause)
8. The students who/that are studying hard will succeed. (Defining clause)
9. My new phone, which is very expensive, has a great camera. (Non-defining clause)
10. The teacher who/that taught us English last year was excellent. (Defining clause)

Conclusion: Speak More Fluently with Relative Clauses

Congratulations on reaching the end of this lesson on relative clauses! You’ve now gained a solid understanding of what they are, how to use them, and how they can elevate your English speaking fluency to a C1 level. Remember, practice is key. Start incorporating relative clauses into your daily conversations and writing. The more you use them, the more natural and fluent they will become.

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